Adaptation Indicators Table

High lake evaporation (0.4-0.6 inches per day) requires three factors: 1) a large temperature difference between water and air (warm water and cold air), 2) low relative humidity, 3) high wind speed.

A measure that attempts to combine temperature and humidity. Humidex(degC)=Mean temperature(degC) + 0.5555(6.11E-10)

E=exp[5417.753((1/271.16)-(1/dew-point temperature(degC)))]

where deg K is degrees kelvin. The Humidex was designed to describe the feeling of hot and humid weather for an average person.

Lin, S., Luo, M., Walker, R. J., Liu, X., Hwang, S.-A., & Chinery, R.

(2009). Extreme High Temperatures and Hospital Admissions for

Respiratory and Cardiovascular Diseases. Epidemiology, 20(5),

738-746.

Tan, J., Zheng, Y., Tang, X., Guo, C., Li, L., Song, G., et al. (2010).

The urban heat island and its impact on heat waves and human

health in Shanghai. Int J Biometeorol, 54(1), 75-84.

A warmer climate generally means more ground level ozone (a component of smog), which can cause respiratory problems, especially for those who are young, old, or have asthma or allergies

United States Global Change Research Program (2009). Regional

Climate Impacts: Midwest. Washington: USGCRP.

The Potential Impacts of Climate Variability and Change on Temperature-Related

Morbidity and Mortality in the United States

Rkeqj=P*(EFjike*IMjike)

Rkeqj is the risk index for each infrastructure element of

type k in DA q.EFjike is the economic factor for each climate scenario, j, impact category, i, infrastructure type, k, and each infrastructure element, e IMjike is the impact multiplier.

Rjks =Eks* Skj

Rjks risk score for the receptor j related to an impact k and a scenario s; Ek,s exposure score related to the impact k in scenario s, according to specific exposure functions; Sk,j susceptibility of the receptor j to the impact k.

S. Pasini , S. Torresan , J. Rizzi , A. Zabeo , A. Critto , A. Marcomini, Climate change impact assessment in Veneto and Friuli Plain groundwater. Part II: A spatially resolved regional risk assessment,Science of the Total Environment 440 (2012) 219–235

1. High density, wet snow does not drift as much as light snow so highways and roads might be less impaired by blizzards.

2. Structural loading of roofs and buildings is likely to increase from large snowfalls of heavy, wet snow.

3. A higher frequency of snowmelt during the winter from warmer average temperatures, coupled with an increased frequency of winter precipitation in the form of rain will likely further increase surface and basement flood risks

4. Rain falling on snow or on frozen ground will also have a higher runoff coefficient than rain falling on bare ground in warmer seasons, further complicating the assessment of winter flood risks.

5. Deicing salt applications might need to be increased during wet snowfalls,  simply because of the dilution effects of denser and wetter snow.

6. An increase in snowstorm intensity, coupled with a greater frequency of heavy, wet snowfalls, will also likely lead to more frequent power blackouts and more extensive tree damage during the winter season.

1.Increases in very hot days and heat waves (higher high temperatures, increased duration of heat waves)

• Increased thermal expansion of bridge joints and paved surfaces, causing possible degradation.
• Concerns regarding pavement integrity, traffic related rutting and migration of liquid asphalt, greater need for maintenance of roads and pavement.
• Limits on periods of construction activity, and more night time work.
• Vehicle overheating and tire degradation.
• Maintenance and construction costs for roads and bridges are likely to increase as temperatures increase.
• Stress on bridge integrity due to temperature expansion of concrete joints, steel, asphalt, protective cladding, coats and sealants.
• Asphalt degradation, resulting in possible short term loss of public access or increased congestion of sections of road and highway during repair and replacement .

2.Decreases in very cold days

• Regional changes in snow and ice removal costs and environmental impacts from salt and chemical use.
• Fewer cold-related restrictions for maintenance workers.

3.Later onset of seasonal freeze and earlier onset of seasonal thaw

• Changes in seasonal weight restrictions.
• Changes in seasonal fuel requirements.
• Improved mobility and safety associated with a reduction in winter weather.
• Longer construction season in colder areas.
• Freeze-thaw conditions increasing frost heaves and potholes restricting loads on roads.

The federal highway administration’s climate change & extreme weather vulnerability assessment framework.  December 2012

1.Increases in intense
precipitation events

• Increases in weather-related delays and traffic disruptions.
• Increased flooding of evacuation routes.
• Increases in flooding of roadways and tunnels.
• Increases in road washout, landslides and mudslides that damage roadways.
• Drainage systems likely to be overloaded more frequently and severely, causing backups and street flooding.
• Areas where flooding is already common will face more frequent and severe problems.
• If soil moisture levels become too high, structural integrity of roads, bridges, and tunnels (especially where they are already under stress) could be compromised.
• Standing water will have adverse effects on road base.
• Increased peak streamflow could affect the sizing requirement for bridges and culverts.

2.Increases in drought conditions

• Increased susceptibility to wildfires, causing road closures due to fire threat or reduced visibility.
• Increased risk of mudslides in areas deforested by wildfires.

3.Changes in seasonal precipitation and river flow patterns

• Benefits for safety and reduced interruptions if frozen precipitation shifts to rainfall.
• Increased risk of floods, landslides, slow failures and damage to roads if precipitation changes from snow to rain in winter and spring thaws.
• Increased variation in wet/dry spells and decrease in available moisture may cause road foundations to degrade.
• Degradation, failure and replacement of road structures due to increases in ground and foundation movement, shrinkage and changes in groundwater.
• Increased maintenance and replacement costs of road infrastructure.
• Short term loss of public access or increased congestion to sections of road and highway.

1.Increases in storm intensity
(leading to higher storm surges,
stronger winds, flooding)

• More frequent and potentially more extensive emergency evacuations.
• More debris on roads, interrupting travel and shipping.
• Bridges, signs, overhead cables and other tall structures are at risk from increased wind speeds.
• Increased threat to stability of bridge decks.
• Decreased expected life-time of highways exposed to storm surge.
• Risk of immediate flooding, damage caused by force of water and secondary damage caused by collisions with debris.
• Erosion of coastal highways and land supporting coastal infrastructure.
• Damage to signs, lighting fixtures, and supports
• Reduced drainage rate of low-lying land after rainfall and flooding events.

1.Rising sea levels (leading to higher storm surge, increased salinity of rivers and estuaries, flooding)

• Amplifies effect of storm surge, causing more frequent interruptions to coastal and low-lying roadway travel due to storm surges.
• Amplifies effect of storm surge, causing more severe storm surges requiring evacuation.
• Permanent inundation of roads or low lying feeder roads in coastal areas. Reduces route options/redundancy.
• More frequent or severe flooding of underground tunnels and low-lying infrastructure.
• As the sea level rises, the coastline will change and highways that were not previously at risk to storm surge and wave damage may be exposed in the future.
• Erosion of road base and bridge supports.
• Highway embankments at risk of subsidence/heave.
• Bridge scour.
• Reduced clearance under bridges.
• Increased maintenance and replacement costs of tunnel infrastructure.